中国为何会错失分子生物学革命？ Why Did China Miss the Molecular Biology Revolution?

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知识分子Intellectual

The Intellectual

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分子生物学(molecular biology)由遗传学和生物化学结合而成。虽然早在1938年国际上就已经出现了分子生物学的概念,但是,这个学科领域的真正诞生却发生在1950年代,一般以蛋白质α-螺旋结构模型的提出(1951年由鲍林(L. Pauling,1901-1994)完成),尤其是DNA双螺旋结构模型的提出(1953年由沃森(J. D. Watson,1928- )、克里克(F. Crick,1916-2004)完成)作为标志。
Molecular biology, a fusion of genetics and biochemistry, has been a concept internationally since as early as 1938. However, the true birth of this field of study didn't occur until the 1950s. This is generally marked by the proposal of the protein alpha-helix structure model (completed by L. Pauling, 1901-1994, in 1951), and especially by the proposal of the DNA double helix structure model (completed by J. D. Watson, 1928-, and F. Crick, 1916-2004, in 1953).

在此后的二三十年,分子生物学在西方国家成果迭出,获得巨大发展,不但解决了遗传学的微观机制问题,把生物学带入了分子的时代,还成了整个自然科学发展的领头羊,大大推动了物理学、化学等传统学科的发展。
Over the next two to three decades, molecular biology made significant strides in Western countries, not only resolving the microscopic mechanisms of genetics and ushering biology into the molecular era, but also leading the development of natural sciences as a whole, greatly propelling the advancement of traditional disciplines such as physics and chemistry.

基础研究的重大突破还产生了意想不到的应用价值,令农业、制药、医疗等行业发生巨变。在这个时间段内,中国开展了一系列以“人工合成生命”为远期目标的研究。它们以生物大分子为操作对象,也可以说是分子生物学研究。但毫无疑问的是,在改革开放之前,中国发展分子生物学的道路与西方的迥异。为什么会如此?如何评价中国的独特道路?这些都是很值得探讨的问题。
Major breakthroughs in basic research also yielded unexpected practical value, causing monumental shifts in industries such as agriculture, pharmaceuticals, and healthcare. During this period, China initiated a series of studies aimed at the long-term goal of "artificially synthesizing life". These studies, which focused on large biological molecules, can also be considered as molecular biology research. However, it is undeniable that prior to the reform and opening up, China's path to developing molecular biology was markedly different from that of the West. Why was this the case? How should we evaluate China's unique path? These are all questions worth exploring.

撰文 | 熊卫民(北京科技大学科技史与文化遗产研究院)
Article by | Xiong Weimin (Institute of History of Science and Cultural Heritage, Beijing University of Science and Technology)

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中、西一度迥异的分子生物学发展道路The divergent paths of molecular biology development in the East and the West

自从摩尔根(T. H. Morgan,1866-1945)把基因定位到染色体(1910年完成)上,尤其是德尔布吕克(M. Delbrück,1906-1981,1935年完成)和薛定谔(E. Schrödinger,1887-1961,1943年完成)论证基因是一种稳定的化学分子后,随之而来的问题是,构成染色体的蛋白质和DNA,究竟哪一个才是遗传物质?该遗传物质是何种结构,为什么能够导致遗传和变异?包括德尔布吕克在内的众多科学家一度认为DNA比较简单,难以存储很多信息,而把探索重点放到了蛋白质上。1953年沃森和克拉克提出DNA的双螺旋结构,并用其较好解释遗传和变异之后,不同国家的大量科学家将注意力转到了研究DNA、RNA、蛋白质以及它们之间的关系上来。
Ever since Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866-1945) located genes on chromosomes (completed in 1910), and especially after Max Delbrück (1906-1981, completed in 1935) and Erwin Schrödinger (1887-1961, completed in 1943) demonstrated that genes are stable chemical molecules, the ensuing question was: which of the proteins and DNA that make up chromosomes is the genetic material? What is the structure of this genetic material, and why can it cause inheritance and variation? Many scientists, including Delbrück, once thought that DNA was too simple to store much information, and therefore focused their research on proteins. However, in 1953, Watson and Crick proposed the double helix structure of DNA, which better explained inheritance and variation. Consequently, a large number of scientists from different countries turned their attention to studying DNA, RNA, proteins, and their interrelationships.

20世纪五十至七十年代,西方在分子生物学方面的里程碑式成果包括:
The milestone achievements in molecular biology in the West from the 1950s to the 1970s include:

分子遗传学领域:建立DNA 的双螺旋结构模型(1953年)→提出遗传密码假说(1954年)→提出传递遗传信息的“中心法则”(1958年)→发现蛋白质合成中的遗传调节机制(1961年)→破译全部的64种遗传密码(1961-1963年)→发现逆转录酶和逆转录现象(1970年)→发现限制性内切酶(1970年)→重组DNA技术也即基因工程的问世(1973年)→DNA测序技术的建立(1977年)......
In the field of molecular genetics: The establishment of the DNA double helix structure model (1953) → The proposal of the genetic code hypothesis (1954) → The proposal of the "central dogma" for the transmission of genetic information (1958) → The discovery of the genetic regulation mechanism in protein synthesis (1961) → The deciphering of all 64 genetic codes (1961-1963) → The discovery of reverse transcriptase and the phenomenon of reverse transcription (1970) → The discovery of restriction endonucleases (1970) → The advent of recombinant DNA technology, also known as genetic engineering (1973) → The establishment of DNA sequencing technology (1977)..

蛋白质结构与功能研究领域:建立蛋白质的α-螺旋结构模型(1951年)→人工合成催产素(1953年)→测定胰岛素氨基酸序列(1955年)→测定肌红蛋白和血红蛋白的晶体结构(1960年)→发现蛋白质的一级结构决定高级结构(1961年)→发明多肽和蛋白质的固相合成法(1963年)......
In the field of protein structure and function research: The establishment of the protein α-helix structure model (1951) → The artificial synthesis of oxytocin (1953) → The determination of the amino acid sequence of insulin (1955) → The determination of the crystal structure of myoglobin and hemoglobin (1960) → The discovery that the primary structure of a protein determines its higher-level structure (1961) → The invention of the solid-phase synthesis method for peptides and proteins (1963).

来自美国、英国、法国的三十多位科学家因为20世纪五十至七十年代在分子生物学方面的贡献而获得诺贝尔医学或生理学奖、诺贝尔化学奖。
Over thirty scientists from the United States, United Kingdom, and France were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology and the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their contributions to molecular biology during the 1950s to 1970s.

中国自1958年起即建立了与分子生物学有关的研究机构(中国科学院生物化学研究所,以下简称“生化所”),开始了这方面的研究(以人工合成胰岛素工作为代表),1963年时又作为国家重点项目开始实施试图全面发展该领域的分子生物学十年规划,起步并不算太晚。在王应睐、邹承鲁、曹天钦、唐有祺、沈善炯、谈家桢、钮经义、王德宝、汪猷、梁植权等从世界著名实验室走出来的优秀科学家的主持下,在短短的数年之内,中国就在蛋白质分子必需基团修饰的定量处理、酶活性不可逆抑制动力学、人工合成胰岛素、tRNA的一级和二级结构、琥珀酸脱氢酶研究、木糖异构酶研究、肌肉蛋白研究等方向取得了一系列重要成果,起点也不算低。可随着“四清”运动,尤其是紧随其后的“文革”运动的开展,这个良好的发展势头被打断,所有的相关研究一度都停顿了下来。1967年5月之后,因为一些极其特殊的机缘,胰岛素晶体结构测定、胰岛素的结构和功能关系、人工合成酵母丙氨酸tRNA、人工合成烟草花叶病毒蛋白质外壳等项目才打着贯彻毛主席最高指示“生命起源要研究一下”的旗帜而得以开展。在持续了十年有余的“文革”中,虽然也出现过其他一些发展分子生物学的努力,譬如1972年底中国科学院曾召开分子生物学座谈会,对分子生物学在中国的长远发展又作了一番规划,之后还采取了一些行动,但随着“批林批孔”、“反击右倾翻案风”等运动的开展,这些努力大多被作为“刮理论风”、“复辟回潮”等加以批判并因而夭折。在“文化大革命”期间一直维续下来,主要还是上述这几个项目。它们和在“大跃进”时启动、于“文革”前夕完成的人工合成胰岛素工作一起,共同构成了有中国特色的“人工合成生命”系列研究,是1958-1977年间分子生物学在中国发展的主线。
China established research institutions related to molecular biology as early as 1958 (namely, the Institute of Biochemistry of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, hereinafter referred to as the "Institute of Biochemistry"), initiating research in this field (represented by the artificial synthesis of insulin). In 1963, as a national key project, a ten-year plan for the comprehensive development of molecular biology was implemented, which was not a late start. Under the leadership of outstanding scientists such as Wang Yinglai, Zou Chenglu, Cao Tianqin, Tang Youqi, Shen Shanjiong, Tan Jiazhen, Niu Jingyi, Wang Debao, Wang You, and Liang Zhiquan, who emerged from world-renowned laboratories, China achieved a series of important results in a few short years. These included quantitative treatment of essential groups in protein molecules, irreversible inhibition kinetics of enzyme activity, artificial synthesis of insulin, primary and secondary structures of tRNA, research on succinic dehydrogenase, research on ribose isomerase, and research on muscle protein. The starting point was not low. However, with the "Four Cleanups" movement, especially the subsequent "Cultural Revolution", this good development momentum was interrupted, and all related research was temporarily halted. After May 1967, due to some extremely special opportunities, projects such as the determination of insulin crystal structure, the relationship between insulin structure and function, the artificial synthesis of yeast alanine tRNA, and the artificial synthesis of tobacco mosaic virus protein shell were carried out under the banner of implementing Chairman Mao's highest instruction to "study the origin of life". During the decade-long "Cultural Revolution", although there were other efforts to develop molecular biology, such as the molecular biology symposium held by the Chinese Academy of Sciences at the end of 1972, which planned for the long-term development of molecular biology in China and took some actions afterwards, these efforts were mostly criticized as "theoretical wind", "restoration tide", etc., and thus were aborted due to movements like "Criticizing Lin Biao and Confucius" and "Counterattacking the Rightist Reversal Trend". The main projects that continued during the "Cultural Revolution" were the aforementioned ones. Together with the work on artificial synthesis of insulin, which was initiated during the "Great Leap Forward" and completed on the eve of the "Cultural Revolution", they constituted a series of research on "artificial synthesis of life" with Chinese characteristics, which was the main line of the development of molecular biology in China from 1958 to 1977.

人工合成胰岛素研究于1966年4月发表全合成论文;胰岛素晶体结构测定研究于1972年发表2.5埃分辨率的论文,1974年发表1.8埃分辨率的论文;胰岛素的结构和功能关系研究于1972年、1974年、1976年发表了系列论文;人工合成酵母丙氨酸tRNA研究于1983年发表全合成论文。人工合成烟草花叶病毒蛋白质外壳研究没能达到预期目标,也没有发表什么中间成果。
The research on the artificial synthesis of insulin was published in a comprehensive synthesis paper in April 1966. The research on the determination of the crystal structure of insulin was published in a paper with a resolution of 2.5 angstroms in 1972, and a paper with a resolution of 1.8 angstroms in 1974. The research on the relationship between the structure and function of insulin was published in a series of papers in 1972, 1974, and 1976. The research on the artificial synthesis of yeast alanine tRNA was published in a comprehensive synthesis paper in 1983. The research on the artificial synthesis of the protein shell of the tobacco mosaic virus did not achieve the expected goal, and no intermediate results were published.

这些项目的参与者,原本只有王应睐(1955)、王猷(1955)是中国科学院学部委员(院士),后来,邹承鲁(1980年)、王德宝(1980)、钮经义(1980)、曹天钦(1980年)、梁栋材(1980)、邢其毅(1980年)、许根俊(1991)、刘新垣(1991)、龚岳亭(1993年)、戚正武(1999)、张友尚(2001年)、常文瑞(2005)、王大成(2005)等人也先后当选为中科院院士。
The participants in these projects originally included only Wang Yinglai (1955) and Wang You (1955), who were members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Later, Zou Chenglu (1980), Wang Debao (1980), Niu Jingyi (1980), Cao Tianqin (1980), Liang Dongcai (1980), Xing Qiyi (1980), Xu Genjun (1991), Liu Xinyuan (1991), Gong Yuetin (1993), Qi Zhengwu (1999), Zhang Youshang (2001), Chang Wenrui (2005), and Wang Dacheng (2005) were also elected as members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.

人工合成胰岛素研究和人工合成酵母丙氨酸tRNA研究均获得了国家自然科学一等奖(获奖时间分别为1982年、1987年);胰岛素晶体结构测定研究获得了国家自然科学二等奖(1982年)。
The research on artificial synthesis of insulin and the research on artificial synthesis of yeast alanine tRNA both received the first prize of the National Natural Science Awards (awarded in 1982 and 1987 respectively); the research on the determination of insulin crystal structure won the second prize of the National Natural Science Awards (1982).

这些当然都是重要奖项,只是和诺贝尔奖相比,其声望还是要逊色很多。人工合成胰岛素研究的代表钮经义还曾获得过1979年的诺贝尔化学奖提名,可惜的是并未能获奖。坊间一度对此忿忿不平。但诺贝尔奖奖励的主要是原创性工作,而人工合成胰岛素研究、人工合成酵母丙氨酸tRNA研究、胰岛素晶体结构测定研究的目标都很明确、基本实验方法也已具备、只是工作量很大,它们属于工程性研究,在探索性、创新性方面并不突出,并未能超出模仿或用已知措施解答难题的阶段,没能获得诺贝尔奖也是可以理解的。
While these are certainly significant awards, they pale in comparison to the prestige of the Nobel Prize. The representative of the artificial synthesis of insulin research, Niu Jingyi, was even nominated for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1979, but unfortunately did not win. There was a time when this was a source of considerable discontent. However, the Nobel Prize primarily rewards original work, and the goals of the research on artificial synthesis of insulin, artificial synthesis of yeast alanine tRNA, and determination of insulin crystal structure were all clear, and the basic experimental methods were already in place. These were large-scale projects, but they were engineering research, not particularly outstanding in terms of exploration and innovation. They did not go beyond imitation or solving problems with known measures, so it is understandable that they did not win the Nobel Prize.

这些研究大多有国际竞争对手,但那些竞争对手的目的并不在于通过“人工合成生命”去最终解答“生命起源”这样的哲学问题,而只是着眼于某些科学问题,企图从分子层面去了解生命现象的某些组分和某些过程。换句话说,虽然所做的工作类似,但由于关心的问题不同,国际竞争对手的研究仍然是探索性的而非工程性的,仍位于国际分子生物学研究的主流之中。
Most of these studies have international competitors, but the aim of these competitors is not to ultimately answer philosophical questions like "the origin of life" through "artificial synthesis of life". Instead, they focus on certain scientific issues, attempting to understand certain components and processes of life phenomena at the molecular level. In other words, although the work done is similar, due to the different concerns, the research of international competitors remains exploratory rather than engineering-based, and is still at the forefront of international molecular biology research.

科学家不了解西方同行的研究进展?Are scientists unaware of the research progress of their Western counterparts?

和其他现代自然科学的学科、领域一样,中国的分子生物学研究也是从西方学过来的,沈善炯、邹承鲁更是出自分子生物学的发源地加州理工学院和剑桥大学。为什么这个学科在中国的发展道路会和西方发达国家的迥异呢?
Like other modern natural sciences, China's molecular biology research was also learned from the West, with Shen Shanjiong and Zou Chenglu even originating from the birthplaces of molecular biology, the California Institute of Technology and Cambridge University. Why would the development path of this discipline in China be so different from that in Western developed countries?

因为跟西方断了联系,中国的生物学家不知道西方同行非常重视分子生物学,不了解他们在这方面的进展?
Is it because China lost contact with the West, and Chinese biologists were unaware of the importance their Western counterparts placed on molecular biology, and were unfamiliar with their progress in this field?

有一点。1950年代以来,中国科学家出国参加学术会议、进修、访问的机会极少[1],把西方的分子生物学家请进来访问、讲学的机会也极少[2],这当然会影响中国科学家对国际科研动向的了解,影响他们对最新实验技术的掌握。但至少在“文革”爆发之前,鉴于中国订阅了很多国际科学期刊,进口了众多西方出版的科学书籍,还对这些期刊和书籍进行广泛的影印,中国科学家对于西方的科学进展、研究热点、科研设备,还是有渠道获知的。不但自己知道,他们还写了一些通俗的文章向大众和领导人介绍这些最新进展[3]。譬如,谈家桢就曾在1959年发表的一篇科普文章中说:
Indeed. Since the 1950s, Chinese scientists have had very few opportunities to go abroad for academic conferences, further studies, or visits. Similarly, there have been very few opportunities to invite Western molecular biologists to visit and lecture in China. This has undoubtedly affected Chinese scientists' understanding of international research trends and their mastery of the latest experimental techniques. However, at least before the outbreak of the "Cultural Revolution", given that China subscribed to many international scientific journals and imported a large number of Western scientific books, and extensively photocopied these journals and books, Chinese scientists still had ways to learn about Western scientific advancements, research hotspots, and research equipment. Not only did they know about these developments, but they also wrote some popular articles to introduce these latest advancements to the public and leaders. For instance, Tan Jiazhen once said in a popular science article published in 1959:

一百年来,从孟德尔遗传特征传递规律和达尔文自然选择规律的发现到现在,生物科学的研究通过实验方法与历史方法的结合运用,特别是近十几年来,由于物理学上和化学上研究方法的进展,把这种方法应用到分析生命活动的具体过程上面来,已经对这个联系子代与亲代的遗传物质有了进一步的认识,即从细胞结构水平上的染色体和它上面所假定的“基因”,发展到化学分子结构——去氧核糖核酸(英文简称DNA,俄文简称ДНК)——的水平上。这个课题牵涉到生物学上的很多学科,像生理学、发生学、细胞学、遗传学、微生物学、生物化学和生物物理学等,已成为当前生物学理论研究中最尖端的任务[4]。
Over the past century, from the discovery of Mendel's laws of genetic inheritance and Darwin's laws of natural selection to the present, the study of biological science has combined experimental and historical methods. Especially in the past decade or so, due to the advancement of research methods in physics and chemistry, these methods have been applied to the analysis of specific life processes, leading to a further understanding of the genetic material that connects offspring and parents. This has evolved from the level of chromosomes and the "genes" assumed on them in cellular structure, to the level of chemical molecular structure - deoxyribonucleic acid (abbreviated as DNA in English, and ДНК in Russian). This topic involves many disciplines in biology, such as physiology, embryology, cell biology, genetics, microbiology, biochemistry, and biophysics, and has become the most cutting-edge task in current theoretical research in biology.

1962年的诺贝尔奖医学与生理学奖、化学奖被空前地授予了5位分子生物学家——沃森、克里克和威尔金斯(M.Wilkins,1916-2004),肯德鲁(K. J. Cowdery,1917-1997)和佩鲁茨(M. F. Perutz,1914-2002)。这种消息也能令中国科技部门的党政领导认识到分子生物学的活力和价值。在科学家的推动和科技部门党政领导的允许下,1962年12月完稿的《1963-1972年科学技术发展规划》(以下简称“十年规划”)中包含了专门的发展分子生物学的内容:
In 1962, an unprecedented event occurred when the Nobel Prizes in Medicine and Physiology, as well as Chemistry, were awarded to five molecular biologists - Watson, Crick, and Wilkins (M.Wilkins, 1916-2004), Kendrew (K. J. Cowdery, 1917-1997), and Perutz (M. F. Perutz, 1914-2002). This news also enabled the party and government leaders of China's science and technology departments to recognize the vitality and value of molecular biology. With the encouragement of scientists and the permission of the party and government leaders of the science and technology departments, the "Science and Technology Development Plan for 1963-1972" (hereinafter referred to as the "Ten-Year Plan"), which was completed in December 1962, included specific content for the development of molecular biology.

近二、三十年来,生物学得到飞跃的发展,主要特征是由定性的观察上升为精确定量的分析,由宏观的研究深入到微观结构的研究,由研究现象的个别过程扩展到现象的普遍联系。对生命现象的研究逐步深入到细胞内精细结构和物理化学机制,同时对生物高分子的研究也逐渐上升到生命活动过程,这样在接壤处就形成了一大片新的研究领域——分子生物学。核酸控制蛋白质合成规律的发现,预示着现代科学正面临重大的飞跃。可以预期,生命科学的研究,将对农业、工业和医疗实践中产生巨大的革命性的影响......实验生物学是生物学发展的主流,必须加速发展,特别是加强分子生物学的研究[5]。
Over the past two or three decades, biology has made leaps and bounds in its development. The main characteristics of this progress are the shift from qualitative observations to precise quantitative analysis, from macroscopic studies to research into microscopic structures, and from studying individual processes of phenomena to exploring their universal connections. Research into life phenomena has gradually delved into the intricate structures within cells and their physicochemical mechanisms. Concurrently, the study of biological macromolecules has also risen to the level of life activity processes, thus forming a vast new research field - molecular biology. The discovery of the regulation of protein synthesis by nucleic acids heralds a significant leap in modern science. It can be anticipated that research in life sciences will have a revolutionary impact on agriculture, industry, and medical practice. Experimental biology, as the mainstream of biological development, must accelerate its progress, especially in strengthening research in molecular biology.

分子生物学研究还被列为十年规划中的国家重点项目任务——“国重第30项”。虽然清楚相关基础非常薄弱,有经验、有成就的科学家相当少,各分支学科领域力量残缺不齐,而且较新的仪器设备尚付阙如,王应睐、谈家桢等人仍提出了不乏雄心的发展目标:培养数以百计的专门人才(包括派遣一些留学生赴西欧学习),生产和进口一些相关的仪器设备和试剂,使得中国在蛋白质、酶与核酸等领域的主要方向,五年内都能充分开展研究,七年内做出相当数量的有国际水平的成果,十年左右接近西欧国家的平均水平[6]。
Molecular biology research has also been listed as a national key project task in the ten-year plan - "National Priority No. 30". Despite the clear understanding that the related foundation is very weak, there are relatively few experienced and accomplished scientists, the strength in various sub-disciplines is uneven, and the newer instruments and equipment are still lacking, Wang Yingnai, Tan Jiazhen and others have still proposed ambitious development goals: to train hundreds of specialists (including sending some students to study in Western Europe), to produce and import some related instruments, equipment and reagents, so that China can fully carry out research in the main directions of proteins, enzymes and nucleic acids within five years, produce a considerable number of internationally competitive results within seven years, and approach the average level of Western European countries in about ten years.

但可惜的是,由于所需经费并未落实,再加上“四清”、“文革”等政治运动的冲击,这个规划并未得到很好的执行。虽然在制订规划后的三四年也购买了一些仪器设备,在上海和北京建设了两个现代化的生物实验中心,还制订了更为细致的《建立分子生物学的研究基础》任务计划书(草案)(1964年上半年由国家科委生物学组制订),并在生化所、中国科学院植物生理研究所(以下简称“植生所”)等机构开展了一些相关研究,但那些研究,除人工合成胰岛素外,普遍规模很小。而在教育和人才培养方面,与分子生物学有关的知识,并未能进入中小学、大学的教育体系;王应睐等只能通过举办高级生化训练班,给来自全国各地的从事或立志从事生物化学教学、研究工作的人员上一点与分子生物学有关的理论和实验课程[7]。
Regrettably, due to the lack of secured funding, coupled with the impact of political movements such as the "Four Cleanups" and the "Cultural Revolution", this plan was not well implemented. Although some equipment was purchased and two modern biological experiment centers were established in Shanghai and Beijing in the three to four years after the plan was formulated, and a more detailed task plan for establishing the foundation of molecular biology (draft) was formulated by the Biology Group of the National Science Committee in the first half of 1964. Some related research was carried out in institutions such as the Biochemical Institute and the Institute of Plant Physiology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (hereinafter referred to as the "Plant Physiology Institute"), but apart from the artificial synthesis of insulin, the scale of these studies was generally small. In terms of education and talent cultivation, knowledge related to molecular biology has not been able to enter the education system of primary and secondary schools and universities. Wang Yinglai and others could only offer some theoretical and experimental courses related to molecular biology to people from all over the country who are engaged in or aspire to engage in biochemical teaching and research by holding advanced biochemical training classes.

过于强调理论联系实际?Overemphasizing the connection between theory and practice?

因为强调理论联系实际,而分子生物学与实际关系太远?
Is it because the emphasis is on linking theory to practice, and molecular biology is too far removed from reality?

也有一点。从1950年起,中国就反对“为科学而科学”,强调理论联系实际,为此经常性的批判基础研究,一些科学家业已开展多年、花钱很少的基础研究项目也被迫终止[8]。1956年制订十二年科学技术发展远景规划,否定科学家按学科制订出来的草案,把指导方针明确为“任务带学科”,只重视当下的任务的完成,而不重视有长远价值的对学科的培育,不愿意分散力量去从事基础研究[9]。在周恩来总理听取一些科学家的汇报之后,才增补了第56项任务:“若干重要基本理论问题的研究”和《基础科学学科规划》。但由于基础研究没有具体的考核指标,而“四大紧急措施”等其他任务有,基础研究任务和规划实际并未认真执行。考虑到还有好多任务带不起的学科,1958年底、1959年初,作为“向科学进军”的“火车头”中国科学院提出要“三大抓”:“一抓尖端科学技术,二抓国民经济建设的重大科学技术问题,三抓基本研究”,其中基本研究包括群众实践经验总结、基本理论研究和基本资料的收集整理分析等[10]。但到具体执行的时候,对基本理论研究抓得还是很不够。20世纪五六十年代的分子生物学研究,虽然国际上成就迭出,但尚未显示出显著的应用价值,中国的决策层也就没有重视它。
There's also this point. Since 1950, China has opposed "science for the sake of science", emphasizing the connection between theory and practice. As a result, basic research has been frequently criticized, and some scientists have been forced to terminate their long-standing, low-cost basic research projects. In 1956, a twelve-year plan for scientific and technological development was formulated, rejecting drafts prepared by scientists according to their disciplines. The guiding principle was clearly defined as "task leads discipline", focusing only on the completion of current tasks and not valuing the long-term cultivation of disciplines. There was a reluctance to divert resources to basic research. After Premier Zhou Enlai listened to reports from some scientists, the 56th task was added: "Research on several important basic theoretical issues" and "Planning for Basic Science Disciplines". However, because basic research did not have specific assessment indicators, while other tasks like the "Four Urgent Measures" did, the tasks and plans for basic research were not seriously implemented. Considering that there were many disciplines that could not be driven by tasks, at the end of 1958 and the beginning of 1959, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, as the "locomotive" of the "March into Science", proposed to "focus on three areas": "First, cutting-edge science and technology, second, major scientific and technological issues in national economic construction, and third, basic research", which included summarizing practical experiences of the masses, basic theoretical research, and the collection, organization, and analysis of basic data. However, when it came to implementation, basic theoretical research was still not given enough attention. In the molecular biology research of the 1950s and 1960s, despite the international achievements, it had not yet shown significant application value, so China's decision-makers did not pay much attention to it.

1970年代初,基因重组技术出现、分子生物学的应用价值现出端倪后,决策层才对其重视了起来。其具体表现包括但不限于:
In the early 1970s, as recombinant DNA technology emerged and the potential value of molecular biology became apparent, decision-makers began to take notice. This was manifested in ways that included, but were not limited to:

1972年10-12月,在周恩来总理的关心下,中国科学院派遣以贝时璋为首的“中国科学家代表团”访问欧美四国(英国、瑞典、加拿大、美国)。分子生物学是重点考察的六个专项中的一个。
From October to December 1972, under the care of Premier Zhou Enlai, the Chinese Academy of Sciences sent a delegation of Chinese scientists led by Bei Shizhang to visit four countries in Europe and America (UK, Sweden, Canada, USA). Molecular biology was one of the six key areas of focus during the visit.

1973年初,国务院科教组启动“文革”爆发以来的首次科技进修生派遣计划,安排了专人去英国学习“微生物分子遗传学”[11]。
In early 1973, the State Council's Science and Education Group initiated the first scientific and technological training program since the outbreak of the "Cultural Revolution", arranging for a dedicated person to study "Microbial Molecular Genetics" in the UK.

作为当时全国的科研行政机构(国家科委已于1970年正式并入中国科学院)和综合性科学研究中心,中国科学院更是有众多重视分子生物学的举措,包括但不限于:
As the national scientific research administrative body at the time (the National Science Committee was officially incorporated into the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1970) and a comprehensive scientific research center, the Chinese Academy of Sciences has implemented numerous measures emphasizing molecular biology, including but not limited to:

1972年12月16-23日,中国科学院在北京召开分子生物学专题座谈会,中国科学院沪区生化所、有机所、实生所、植生所、生理所,京区微生物所、植物所、动物所、遗传所、生物物理所、物理所以及北京大学、武汉大学、中国医学科学院等14个单位的33位代表参加[12]。
From December 16th to 23rd, 1972, the Chinese Academy of Sciences convened a symposium on molecular biology in Beijing. Representatives from 14 units, including the Shanghai Biochemistry Institute, Organic Institute, Practical Biology Institute, Plant Biology Institute, Physiology Institute of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Beijing Microbiology Institute, Plant Institute, Animal Institute, Genetics Institute, Biophysics Institute, Physics Institute, Peking University, Wuhan University, and the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, attended the meeting.

1973年11月-12月,中国科学院派遣以童第周为团长的“中国生物科学家代表团”,对日本的42个科研机构进行了长达1个月的访问。考察重点是日本的分子生物学研究状况[13]。
From November to December 1973, the Chinese Academy of Sciences dispatched a delegation of Chinese biologists, led by Tong Dizhou, to visit 42 research institutions in Japan for a month. The focus of the visit was to examine the state of molecular biology research in Japan.

1975年5月,王应睐、张其玖、李载平等一行11人组成中国科学院分子生物学考察组(组长是胡世全),对美国19个科研机构进行了访问[14]。
In May 1975, a team of 11 people, including Wang Yingnai, Zhang Qijiu, and Li Zai Ping, formed the Molecular Biology Research Group of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (led by Hu Shiquan). They visited 19 scientific research institutions in the United States.

1976年9月-10月,中国科学院派遣以沈善炯研究员为团长的“分子生物学代表团”,对英国和法国的多个分子生物学实验室进行了为期40多天的访问[15]。
From September to October 1976, the Chinese Academy of Sciences dispatched a "Molecular Biology Delegation" led by researcher Shen Shanqiong. They conducted a visit lasting over 40 days to several molecular biology laboratories in the UK and France.

尽管此时的中国决策层开始重视西方那种分子生物学研究进路了,但已开展的那些工作有巨大惯性,在分子生物学方面有基础的人依然把精力放在那些工作上。
Although China's decision-makers have begun to value the Western approach to molecular biology research at this point, the work that has already been initiated carries significant momentum. Those with a foundation in molecular biology continue to focus their energies on these tasks.

为什么只说“有一点”?因为同期中国围绕“人工合成生命”做的那些研究,也基本没有应有价值。胰岛素是治疗I型糖尿病的特效药,人们一度设想人工合成胰岛素能创造经济效益[16],但由于人工合成的胰岛素十分昂贵,和从动物中提取的相比,在价格上劣势巨大,实际并无实用价值。至于在“文革”期间开展的那几项后续研究,更是从一开始就知道,它们没有任何应用价值。
Why only say "a little"? Because the research that China conducted during the same period around "artificially synthesized life" also essentially lacked value. Insulin is a specific treatment for Type I diabetes, and there was once a notion that artificially synthesized insulin could generate economic benefits. However, due to the high cost of artificially synthesized insulin, it is significantly disadvantaged in price compared to insulin extracted from animals, and it has no practical value in reality. As for the follow-up studies conducted during the "Cultural Revolution" period, it was known from the start that they had no application value whatsoever.

与前面两个原因相比,更加重要得多的原因是科学批判活动所造成的排斥力。
Compared to the previous two reasons, a far more significant reason is the repulsion caused by scientific criticism activities.

科学批判所造成的排斥力The repulsion caused by scientific criticism

从1949年起,中国就从苏联引进了对自然科学的批判活动,很多经典的科学理论、很多前沿研究、很多科学家都遭到批判。孟德尔(G. J. Mendel,1822-1884)、摩尔根的基因理论(当时称之为“摩尔根遗传学”)被戴上“唯心论”“骗局”“反动的”“落后的”“有害的”之类帽子,被要求“彻底根除”“尽力的去掉”[17]。在基因理论的研究和教学方面有成就的学者大多遭受厄运,其中,李景均被逼出走[18],谈家桢、陈桢等被迫发文公开检讨[19],鲍文奎被全部犁除试验田中的秧苗[20] ,“中国生物学界的老祖宗”胡先骕只因在新著《植物分类学简编》中提及了国际科学界对李森科的批评,就遭到大会批判,其书也被禁毁[21]。臭名昭著的李森科(T.D.Lysenko,1898-1976)的那套伪科学,更是在对基因理论的批判活动中,上了中国的学校教材,在研究和生产中得到大推广。虽然1956年中央宣布实施“双百方针”,还于当年8月召开青岛遗传学座谈会,对遗传学领域的批判活动做过纠偏工作,但其结果也不过是允许少数人研究基因理论而已,学校中所教的,基本还是李森科那一套。1960年,裴新澍、卢惠霖等基因理论的研究或教学者又遭到疾风骤雨般的围攻。甚至直到1970年代,还有一些期刊文章在批判基因理论,称其“仍然是彻头彻尾的十足的预成论的翻版”等[22]。
Since 1949, China has imported from the Soviet Union a critical approach to natural science, with many classic scientific theories, cutting-edge research, and scientists coming under criticism. The genetic theories of Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884) and Thomas Hunt Morgan were labeled as "idealistic", "fraudulent", "reactionary", "backward", and "harmful", and there were calls for their "complete eradication" and "maximum removal". Scholars who had made achievements in the research and teaching of genetic theory mostly suffered misfortune. Among them, Li Jingjun was forced to leave, Tan Jiazhen and Chen Zhen were forced to publicly self-criticize, Bao Wenkui had all the seedlings in his experimental field plowed under, and Hu Xiansu, the "grand old man of Chinese biology", was criticized at a large meeting simply because he mentioned international scientific criticism of Lysenko in his new book "A Brief Compilation of Plant Taxonomy", and his book was also banned. The infamous pseudoscience of Trofim Denisovich Lysenko (1898-1976) was even incorporated into Chinese school textbooks and widely promoted in research and production during the criticism of genetic theory. Although in 1956 the central government announced the implementation of the "Double Hundred Policy" and held a genetics symposium in Qingdao in August of the same year to correct the criticism in the field of genetics, the result was merely to allow a few people to study genetic theory. What was taught in schools was still basically Lysenko's theory. In 1960, genetic researchers or educators such as Pei Xinshu and Lu Huilin were again subjected to a stormy onslaught. Even into the 1970s, there were still some journal articles criticizing genetic theory, calling it "still thoroughly a complete rehash of preformationism".

科学批判使得人们闻“基因”而色变,又有多少人敢提议研究基因的分子载体DNA及相关物质呢?又有哪位党政领导会批准这方面的研究呢?所以,尽管中国科学院(1959年)和复旦大学(1961年)都成立了遗传学研究所,可长期以来,它们并没有开展多少与分子遗传学有关的研究。
Scientific criticism has made people shudder at the mention of "genes", but how many dare to propose research on the molecular carriers of genes, DNA, and related substances? And which party and government leaders would approve such research? Therefore, despite the establishment of genetics research institutes by the Chinese Academy of Sciences (1959) and Fudan University (1961), they have not conducted much research related to molecular genetics for a long time.

科学研究的主导者不是科学家The leaders of scientific research are not scientists

之所以基本无视国际主流、走自己的独特道路,归根结底是因为当时中国的科研工作的主导者并非科学家。
The reason why they basically ignore the international mainstream and follow their own unique path is fundamentally because the leaders of scientific research in China at that time were not scientists.

对于科研工作,科研人员只有建议权,决策权被牢牢掌握在领导干部的手上。在后者看来,科学是一种工具,是为国防军工、经济建设、政治和意识形态服务的,它本身并没有什么价值。而且,他们还在相当长的时间内认为自然科学是有阶级性的,有“唯心”“唯物”之分,而科研则有“跪着”和“独立自主”之别。所以,他们才会批判“为科学而科学”,才会纵容一些人消灭摩尔根遗传学,才会批判“从文献缝里找题目”,才会主张“科学研究必须搞群众运动”。正因为高度专业化的科研工作和其他工作一样,也是由喜欢“多快好省”“抱大西瓜”的外行领导所主导,科研人员才不得不“曲线救国”、“拉大旗作虎皮”,去建议从事能为政治和意识形态服务的“人工合成生命”系列研究。这些项目被批准后,从找哪些单位协作,把什么人结合到项目组中来,用什么方式来做研究,到成功后论文如何署名,如何宣传,选什么人作为代表人物,如何分配荣誉,等等,全都由官员来决定。在官员们在做相关决策时,考虑的主要是政治和意识形态,而非规律和真相。
In the realm of scientific research, researchers only have the power to propose, while decision-making power is firmly held by the leadership. In their view, science is a tool, serving national defense, economic construction, politics, and ideology, and has no inherent value. Moreover, for a considerable period, they believed that natural science has a class nature, distinguishing between "idealism" and "materialism", and research has the distinction between "subservience" and "independence". Therefore, they criticized "science for the sake of science", condoned the eradication of Morgan genetics, criticized "finding topics from literature gaps", and advocated "mass movements in scientific research". Precisely because highly specialized scientific research, like other work, is led by laymen who favor "efficiency and thrift" and "aiming for big gains", researchers have no choice but to "save the nation through indirect means" and "cloak themselves in grandeur", proposing research series on "artificially synthesized life" that can serve politics and ideology. Once these projects are approved, everything from which units to collaborate with, who to involve in the project team, how to conduct the research, how to attribute authorship after success, how to publicize, who to select as representative figures, how to distribute honors, and so on, is all decided by officials. When these officials make related decisions, their primary considerations are politics and ideology, rather than laws and truth.

自由体制和官营体制Free-market system and state-run system

就像20世纪二三十年代是量子力学发展的黄金年代一样,20世纪五十至七十年代,也是分子生物学发展的黄金年代。新的问题域和新的范式出现,不同国家不同学科的西方科学家,尤其是年轻学者投入进来,在思想的市场独立自主、自由选择、自由探索、自由争辩,摘取了一个又一个的重大成就,令自己作为科学英杰被永久载入史册。
Just as the 1920s and 1930s were the golden age of quantum mechanics, the 1950s to the 1970s were also the golden age of molecular biology. New fields of inquiry and paradigms emerged, attracting Western scientists from different countries and disciplines, especially young scholars. They independently and freely chose, explored, and debated in the marketplace of ideas, achieving one significant accomplishment after another, and thus permanently etching their names in the annals of scientific heroes.

同时期的中国科学界属于举国体制,“全国一盘棋”。在官员的领导下,科研人员和人民群众“两条腿走路”,批判各种“错误”观念,统一思想,一切行动听指挥,集中力量办大事,盼望抱得惊天动地的“大西瓜”,赶上和超过世界先进水平。
Meanwhile, the scientific community in China during the same period operated under a national system, akin to "one game of chess across the country". Under the leadership of officials, researchers and the public walked "on two legs", criticizing various "erroneous" concepts, unifying thoughts, following commands in all actions, and concentrating efforts on major tasks. They hoped to grasp earth-shattering "big watermelons", striving to catch up with and surpass the world's advanced level.

但事与愿违的是,那个时段中国开展的大部分协作攻关项目都是失败的;在达到了预期目标的少量项目,如人工合成胰岛素、胰岛素晶体结构测定、人工合成酵母丙氨酸tRNA项目中[23],中国的科研效率也远远不及国外的竞争者。中国倾全国之力,把很多优秀专家集中到一起,在不计成本的情况,仍然只是基本与西方的一两位并不是特别突出的科学家如卡佐亚尼斯(P. G. Katsoyannis,1924-2019)、查恩(H. Zahn,1916-2004)、大塚荣子等战成平手,而西方特别突出的科学家如霍奇金(D. C .Hodgkin,1910-1994)、科拉纳(H. G. Khorana,1922-2011)、梅里菲尔德(R.B. Merrifleld,1921-2006)等则在同类工作上有远胜中国之处[24]。
Contrary to expectations, most of the collaborative research projects undertaken in China during that period were unsuccessful. Even in the few projects that achieved their intended goals, such as the artificial synthesis of insulin, the determination of insulin crystal structure, and the artificial synthesis of yeast alanine tRNA, China's research efficiency was far behind that of its foreign competitors. Despite mobilizing the entire nation's resources and gathering many excellent experts, China could only manage to compete on an equal footing with a few Western scientists who were not particularly outstanding, such as P. G. Katsoyannis (1924-2019), H. Zahn (1916-2004), and Eiko Otsuka. However, particularly prominent Western scientists like D. C. Hodgkin (1910-1994), H. G. Khorana (1922-2011), and R.B. Merrifield (1921-2006) far outperformed China in similar work.

对于中国的科研效率过低这一点,虽然基本没有在大众媒体上作过公开报道,不少相关的科研人员和管理者是承认并颇有微词的。而且,这些项目并没有显著的带动效应:重点没能带动一般,任务对学科的带动作用也不够明显。
Regarding the issue of low research efficiency in China, although it has not been publicly reported in the mainstream media, many relevant researchers and managers acknowledge and express subtle criticism. Moreover, these projects have not had a significant driving effect: the key points have not been able to drive the general, and the task's driving effect on the discipline is not clear enough.

和同期西方自由研究所获得的巨大成就相比,中国围绕“人工合成生命”而开展的少量工程性官营研究是非常后进的。但不管怎么样,通过这种曲折的途径,即使在“文化大革命”这种极为严酷的时期,中国仍然在分子生物学领域产出了一定的成果。更重要的是,“文革”时期,在大学停止招生、研究生停止培养、别的基础研究项目基本不再进行之后,这些项目几乎成了培养现代生物学人才的唯一手段。一些负责“促生产”的干部本想通过开展这些“无产阶级司令部”下达的任务而在参与造反的青年群众中培养“无产阶级革命事业的接班人”,可各单位的相关青年“革命科技人员”通过“在战争中学习战争”,却最终使自己变成了分子生物学领域的专门人才。有了这批人才积累,再加上部分还没把专业知识全荒废掉的老专家,中国才能迅速跟上国际潮流,于“文革”结束之后数年即在以分子遗传学和基因工程为代表的分子生物学主流研究领域取得成果。而他们的学生辈,尤其是那些有机会到海外去留学和工作的,更是能够融入国际,和国际同行一道成长,在某些领域进入国际先进行列。
Compared to the significant achievements of Western liberal institutes of the same period, China's limited state-sponsored research on "artificially synthesized life" was quite backward. However, through this convoluted path, China still managed to produce some results in the field of molecular biology, even during the extremely harsh period of the "Cultural Revolution". More importantly, during the "Cultural Revolution", when universities stopped enrolling students, graduate training was halted, and other basic research projects were essentially discontinued, these projects became almost the only means of cultivating modern biological talent. Some officials responsible for "promoting production" intended to cultivate "successors to the proletarian revolutionary cause" among the young people participating in the rebellion by carrying out tasks issued by the "proletarian headquarters". However, the relevant young "revolutionary scientific and technological personnel" of various units, through "learning war in war", eventually turned themselves into specialists in the field of molecular biology. With this accumulation of talent, coupled with some old experts who had not completely wasted their professional knowledge, China was able to quickly catch up with international trends. Within a few years after the end of the "Cultural Revolution", China achieved results in the mainstream research fields of molecular biology, represented by molecular genetics and genetic engineering. Their students, especially those who had the opportunity to study and work abroad, were able to integrate into the international community, grow with their international counterparts, and take the lead in some fields.

结语Conclusion

1949年之后,中国很重视科学技术,当时先后制订了十二年规划、十年规划,并发动了“向科学进军”、“技术革命”、“技术革新和技术革命”等与科学技术有关的政治运动,期望本国在科学和产业上能够迅速超英赶美胜苏联。如果说略有遗憾,大概是没有机会参加近代以来的几次科学革命、技术革命,以至于教科书上、科学技术史上基本没有记载由近现代的中国人所做出来的成果。
After 1949, China placed great emphasis on science and technology, successively formulating twelve-year and ten-year plans, and launching political movements related to science and technology such as "Marching towards Science", "Technological Revolution", and "Technological Innovation and Technological Revolution". The country hoped to rapidly surpass Britain, catch up with the United States, and outperform the Soviet Union in science and industry. If there is any regret, it is probably that there was no opportunity to participate in several scientific and technological revolutions since modern times, so that there are basically no records of achievements made by modern Chinese people in textbooks and the history of science and technology.

分子生物学的重大突破出现在20世纪50年代初,然后分子生物学迅速成为科学发达国家的研究热点,一个又一个的里程碑式成果出现。谈家桢等中国科学家意识到了这是一个换道超车的好机会。他们还在报刊上发表文章,给国民尤其是领导人普及相关的知识,呼吁国家重视这方面的研究。遗憾的是,这些呼吁没能及时得到响应,后来虽有所响应但也没能落实。中国的相关科研人员难以按照自己的认识和心愿去做最有价值的研究,只好“拉大旗作虎皮”,以显得有些谄媚的态度去争取一点做边缘研究的机会。就分子生物学革命而言,不但早期的重大成就不是中国做出的,而且在人家做出来之后,中国科学界也基本没有跟踪,而是试图闭门造车、另搞一套,以至于革命中期、后期的成果中国也没有份,直到相关的技术应用——基因工程出现后,中国才逐渐向国际主流靠拢,才慢慢跟着国际主流一起进步。
The major breakthrough in molecular biology occurred in the early 1950s, and then molecular biology quickly became a research hotspot in scientifically advanced countries, with one milestone achievement after another. Chinese scientists like Tan Jiazhen realized that this was a great opportunity to overtake on a curve. They also published articles in newspapers and magazines to popularize related knowledge to the public, especially leaders, and called for the country to pay attention to this research. Regrettably, these calls did not receive timely responses, and although there were responses later, they were not implemented. Chinese researchers related to this field could not conduct the most valuable research according to their own understanding and wishes, and had to "wave the big banner to scare the tiger", appearing somewhat sycophantic to strive for opportunities to do marginal research. Speaking of the molecular biology revolution, not only were the early major achievements not made by China, but even after others had made them, the Chinese scientific community basically did not follow up, but tried to reinvent the wheel and do something different. As a result, China did not participate in the achievements of the middle and late stages of the revolution. It was not until the emergence of related technological applications - genetic engineering, that China gradually moved closer to the international mainstream and slowly progressed with the international mainstream.

十一届三中全会以来,经过多轮改革,随着经济的发展,中国的科学研究也取得了长足的进步,逐渐从远远跟跑或闭门造车,变成了贴身紧跟,某些领域甚至先行跑到了无人区。在没人可以跟踪的时候,原创能力不足是一个严重的问题。在这个时候,重温错失分子生物学革命的教训是有价值的。亟盼我们能够吸取相关教训,尊重科学家在科研工作中的主体地位,走科学发达国家花数百年摸索出来的正路。
Since the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee, China's scientific research has made significant strides through multiple rounds of reform and economic development. Gradually, it has shifted from trailing far behind or working in isolation to closely following the global pace. In some areas, it has even taken the lead, venturing into uncharted territories. However, when no one can follow, a lack of originality becomes a serious issue. At this juncture, it is valuable to revisit the lessons learned from missing out on the revolution in molecular biology. It is our fervent hope that we can learn from these lessons, respect the central role of scientists in research work, and follow the path that developed countries have painstakingly discovered over hundreds of years.

原文主要内容已刊于《新兴科学和技术趋势》2023年第2期,原题为“分子生物学在中国的独特发展道路(1958-1976)”
The primary content of the original text was published in the second issue of "Emerging Science and Technology Trends" in 2023, titled "The Unique Development Path of Molecular Biology in China (1958-1976)"

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