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A person who has a doppelganger, Freud wrote, “may identify himself with another and so become unsure of his true self.”3 He wasn’t right about everything, but he was right about that.

Doppelganger

Naomi Klein

Artificial neural networks—the precursor for today’s deep learning—were designed to address some of the differences pointed out by von Neumann. And reinforcement learning, through which an AI program interacts with an environment and learn from feedback, was based on the stimulus-response theories of Behaviorist psychology.

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I am, however, inclined to agree with Gunkel and Coghlan (2025) that the best method for assessing whether metaphorical language is appropriate or not is the extent to which it helps us better understand the potential epistemic and social threats that such systems pose.

2508.19588

Lucy Osler

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