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Such explanations are readily available. One area of research was particularly damaging to Skinner’s theory.
Brown and Jenkins (1968) discovered autoshaping, a procedure whereby Pavlovian procedures can induce key-pecking in pigeons (the procedure can be modified to produce bar-pressing in rats). Thus, the key-peck and the bar-press, the two paradigmatic operants, became respondents. A broader review (Mills 1988) shows that, when hungry or thirsty, rats and pigeons emit instinctively based food- or water-gaining responses. Thus, pigeons peck with the beak closed when they are hungry and the beak open when they are thirsty, while rats will grasp and gnaw at an object associated with food (e.g., the lever in the Skinner box).
Cognitive and sociocultural explanations will have to be found to explain human responses to rewards and punishments
Encyclopedia of the History of Psychological Theories
Robert W. Rieber
Instead, Watson, in his post-academic writings (e.g., Watson 1924), asserted that uncontrolled and unintentional parental (especially maternal) behaviors were the sole influences on the character development of children. Watson exhorted parents (again, especially mothers) to program their interactions with their children in such a way as to produce desirable character development, where “desir- able,” broadly construed, meant “socially useful.”
Encyclopedia of the History of Psychological Theories
Robert W. Rieber
Many of the city’s white residents, including Dr. Benjamin Rush, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, erroneously thought that something in the constitution of Black people kept them from catching the virus.18 So they pressed African Americans into service as nurses, caretakers, and gravediggers. Allen, Jones, and other members of the Free African Society were instrumental in tending to the city’s sick, with Allen himself falling ill and recovering.
The 1619 Project
Nikole Hannah-Jones and The New York Times Magazine
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